Key Takeaways (expand)
- Manganese is a mineral that’s essential for all life.
- Manganese serves as a component of a variety of enzymes, and is also used as an enzyme cofactor (meaning it’s needed for certain enzymes to activate).
- These manganese-containing and manganese-activated enzymes perform numerous biological functions, including carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism, cholesterol processing, ammonia detoxification, gluconeogenesis, proteoglycan synthesis, and free radical defense.
- Through its role as a cofactor for glycotransferases (needed to form cartilage and bone tissue) and prolidase (needed to use proline to form collagen), manganese supports skeletal health, wound healing, and healthy joints and ligaments.
- Manganese serves as a structural component of the enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase, which is one of the most important antioxidants in cells.
- Studies suggest manganese could help protect against diabetes, possibly through its role in glucose homeostasis and carbohydrate metabolism; however, the evidence isn’t totally consistent, and more research is needed.
- Low manganese intake may increase the risk of osteoporosis, due to its important role in enzymes that form bone and collagen.
- Some evidence suggests manganese is involved in seizure disorders, although the exact mechanisms aren’t known.
- Excess environmental exposure and/or ingestion of manganese is toxic to the nervous system, and can lead to a neurodegenerative disorder called manganism, characterized by the death of dopaminergic neurons and symptoms resembling Parkinson’s disease.
- Although true manganese deficiency is uncommon, it can cause skeletal abnormalities, impaired glucose tolerance, bone demineralization, reduced reproductive function, impaired growth, and alterations in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
- Great sources of manganese include fish, shellfish, nuts, seeds, sweet potatoes, legumes, tea, cruciferous vegetables, whole grains and dark green vegetables.
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The mineral manganese is essential for all life, and the adult human body contains about 10 to 20 mg of it—mostly in the bones, liver, kidney, brain, and pancreas. It’s also the fifth most abundant metal in the earth’s crust. It was first isolated in 1774 from a black ore called pyrolucite (which is mostly composed of manganese dioxide, or MnO2). But, manganese was being used in this black-ore form by cave painters as far back as 30,000 years ago! There’s even evidence that Neanderthals collected pyrolucite in order to make fire, likely because this material lowers the temperature at which wood auto-ignites and therefore makes building fire easier. Manganese compounds were also used by Roman and Egyptian glassmakers to add or remove color from glass!
Manganese is needed for bone formation, free radical defense, macronutrient metabolism (including blood sugar control), and skin integrity. It also serves as a component of many different enzymes. Foods high in manganese include fish and shellfish (particularly mussels, clams, and oysters), nuts and seeds, sweet potatoes, legumes, leafy dark green vegetables, tea, and cruciferous vegetables (such as broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, kale, Brussels sprouts, and turnip greens). Whole grains—particularly oatmeal, brown rice, and bran cereals—are also rich sources.
The Biological Roles of Manganese
Manganese serves as a component of a variety of enzymes, and is also needed for certain enzymes to activate. Oxidoreductases (which catalyze oxidation-reduction reactions), transferases (which catalyze the transfer of non-hydrogen chemical groups from one compound to another), hydrolases (which use water to break chemical bonds), lyases (which break down chemical bonds without the use of water), isomerases (which catalyze structural rearrangements inside of a molecule), and ligases (which join two molecules together by creating a new chemical bond) are all classes of enzymes that use manganese as a cofactor!
Some of these manganese-activated (and manganese-containing) enzymes are needed for processing carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol—giving manganese a role in macronutrient metabolism. For example, the enzymes pyruvate carboxylase (which contains manganese) and phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (which is activated by manganese) are used for gluconeogenesis—the process of producing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. Likewise, the manganese-containing enzyme arginase plays an important role in the urea cycle, helping the liver detoxify ammonia created during amino acid metabolism. And, a manganese-activated enzyme called glutamine synthetase helps convert the amino acid glutamate into glutamine in the brain, in turn supporting the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and mucopolysaccharides (all of which have biosynthetic pathways that glutamine is needed for).
Through its cofactor role, manganese is also important for bone health, cartilage formation, and wound healing. For one, manganese activates enzymes called glycotransferases, which are needed in order to synthesize proteoglycans—proteins the body uses to form healthy cartilage and bone tissue. Glycotransferases also allow for the synthesis of glycosaminoglycans, which are long polysaccharides that support structural components of skin and appear to play a role in wound healing. Another manganese-activated enzyme, prolidase, assists in wound healing by helping the body use proline (an amino acid) to form collagen in skin cells (in fact, one of the consequences of prolidase deficiency is abnormal wound healing!).
Notably, manganese is part of the enzyme manganese superoxide dismutase—one of the most important antioxidant components in a cell. This enzyme is the chief scavenger of reactive oxygen species produced within the mitochondria, and works by converting a free radical called superoxide (which is created during ATP synthesis) into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. As a result, manganese superoxide dismutase helps protect against mitochondrial dysfunction, and its activity has an enormous impact on the health of the cell!
Manganese also plays an important role in plant photosynthesis, due to serving as a molecular component of chlorophyll. As a result, the manganese content of soil can influence the health of plant crops. Manganese (in the form of manganese sulfate) is often used as a fertilizer for soil to support the growth of crops like citrus.
Because both too much and too little manganese can be dangerous, the body tightly regulates its levels through two general avenues: by adjusting the absorption of manganese in the intestine, and by adjusting its excretion into bile.
Interactions with Other Nutrients
Manganese interacts with several other nutrients in important ways. Dietary iron, for example, can decrease manganese absorption because these two minerals share common proteins for their transport and absorption (particularly transferrin, ferroportin, the lactoferrin receptor, and the divalent metal transporter 1). Iron supplementation of 60 mg daily for four months has been shown to reduce manganese levels in the blood, as well as decrease the activity of some manganese-dependent enzymes like manganese superoxide reductase; iron excess in general (as measured by high ferritin concentrations) is associated with reduced manganese absorption in the intestine. Meanwhile, iron deficiency has been associated with increased manganese absorption, as well as potentially dangerous manganese accumulation in the brain. (Interestingly, men generally absorb less manganese than women, regardless of dietary intake—a phenomenon that’s likely due to the fact that men have higher iron stores!)
Other potential nutrient interactions with manganese include magnesium and calcium, both of which have been shown to slightly reduce manganese availability (at least in the form of supplements!).
The antibiotic medication tetracycline, as well as magnesium-containing laxatives or antacids, can also decrease manganese absorption when taken at the same time as a manganese-containing meal.
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Manganese in Health and Disease
Manganese plays a particularly vital role in skeletal health and wound healing, due to serving as a cofactor for enzymes involved in cartilage and collagen formation. Getting enough of this nutrient may also help protect against diabetes, osteoporosis, and seizure disorders, although more research is needed in all of these areas. And, both too little and too much manganese can be problematic: while a deficiency can cause skeletal abnormalities, impaired growth, and alterations in carbohydrate tolerance and metabolism, too much can be toxic to the nervous system (although it takes extremely high exposures to get there!).
Manganese and Type 2 Diabetes
Research shows that manganese may play a role in protecting against several chronic diseases—a major one being diabetes. In animal models, manganese deficiency leads to glucose intolerance and impaired insulin secretion in a way that resembles type 2 diabetes, and several large prospective cohort studies have shown inverse associations between manganese intake and the development of type 2 diabetes over time. In a Japanese cohort of nearly 20,000 people, women in the highest quartile of manganese intake had a 47% lower risk of developing diabetes than those in the lowest quartile!
That being said, other studies that use biomarkers of manganese intake (rather than self-reported intakes) have shown mixed results, including no relationship between manganese status and diabetes, a positive association between manganese status and diabetes, a negative association between manganese status and diabetes, and a U-shaped curve relationship between manganese status and diabetes (meaning both the highest and lowest levels were associated with an increased risk)!
Given the known role of manganese in glucose homeostasis and carbohydrate metabolism, a protective effect against metabolic diseases like diabetes seems plausible. But, more research is clearly needed to understand this relationship, especially in humans.
Manganese and Osteoporosis
Manganese may also have some important links with osteoporosis. Multiple observational studies have found that women with osteoporosis tend to have low levels of manganese in their blood, and a placebo-controlled trial of postmenopausal women showed that adding manganese, copper, and zinc to a calcium supplement was more effective at preventing spinal bone loss than the calcium supplement alone. But, it’s hard to say from this study how much benefit was from manganese itself versus the other trace elements, and there’s a shortage of controlled trials studying the effects of manganese specifically on bone health. If a higher intake of manganese does have a protective effect against osteoporosis, it’s likely due to its role in bone- and collagen-forming enzymes.
Manganese and Seizures
There’s even some evidence that manganese is involved in seizure disorders, although its precise role isn’t fully understood. In rats, manganese deficiency increases susceptibility to seizures, and genetically epilepsy-prone rats have been shown to have lower concentrations of manganese in their blood and brain. Even in humans, studies have documented a correlation between convulsions and low blood levels of manganese, as well as a possible relationship between genetic disorders of manganese metabolism and epilepsy. However, much more research is needed to understand how manganese might play a role in seizure disorders!
Manganese and Osteoarthritis
Some research has linked manganese with osteoarthritis, a degenerative joint disease. A 1999 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover trial tested the effects of a combination of glucosamine HCl (1,500 mg/day), chondroitin sulfate (1,200 mg/day), and manganese ascorbate (228 mg/day) in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee or low back. The results showed that this mixture significantly improved knee osteoarthritis symptoms.
A 2000 randomized placebo-controlled study of patients with osteoarthritis of the knee found similar results with a supplemental mixture of glucosamine HCl, sodium chondroitin sulfate, and manganese ascorbate. Compared to the control group, those in the intervention group saw significant improvements in the severity of their osteoarthritis (though these findings were most pronounced for patients with mild or moderate, but not severe, forms of the disease).
More research is needed to test the independent effects of manganese on osteoarthritis!
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Health Effects of Manganese Deficiency
True manganese deficiency is relatively uncommon in humans, and has mostly been studied in animals—where it’s been shown to cause impaired growth, skeletal abnormalities, impaired glucose tolerance, reduced reproductive function, and changes in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. In human reports of manganese deficiency, symptoms have included bone demineralization and impaired growth in young children, skin rashes, indicators of increased bone remodeling (such as elevated phosphorus, calcium, and alkaline phosphatase), and poor glucose tolerance.
Despite its importance in human health, manganese is often left out of the formulas for nutritional supplements, including multivitamins. This brings a risk (albeit small!) of developing mineral imbalances among people who regularly use high-dose nutritional supplements, especially if iron intake is high.
Problems From Too Much Manganese
While manganese is essential for health, it can also be toxic to the nervous system at high levels. In fact, excessive environmental exposure, or the ingestion of very high amounts of manganese, can cause a neurodegenerative disorder called manganism—in which dopaminergic neurons die, leading to symptoms resembling those of Parkinson’s disease. This includes tremors, facial and muscle spasms, difficulty walking, and sometimes psychiatric symptoms like irritability and hallucinations. Most often, manganism results from inhaling manganese powder (making miners, smelters, and welders at the highest risk), but in some cases, this condition has been associated with drinking high-manganese water (typically from external contamination).
Some cross-sectional and prospective cohort studies of children have found a link between drinking water with excess manganese levels and behavioral and cognitive problems, including lower performance IQ, higher incidence of conduct problems (especially in boys), and a higher risk of ADHD-Inattentive subtype. Less commonly, manganese toxicity has been reported from taking high-dose manganese supplements for long periods of time, and adverse effects have occurred taking herbal supplements contaminated with manganese. Fortunately, consuming manganese from diet alone doesn’t seem to pose any risk of side effects!
In rare cases, manganese toxicity can occur due to inherited manganese-overload disorders. Autosomal recessive mutations in the SLC30A10 gene can cause manganese overload due to altering the function of a manganese transporter in the liver and brain. People with such mutations end up with manganese accumulation in the liver and certain regions of the brain, leading to liver dysfunction and involuntary muscle contractions (dystonia).
Apart from people with occupational exposure, high-manganese drinking water, or genetic conditions, those at increased risk of manganese toxicity include people with chronic liver disease (since the body uses bile produced by the liver to eliminate manganese), infants and children (who have higher manganese absorption in the intestine, and lower manganese excretion in the bile), and people with iron deficiency (since this leads to increased manganese absorption and sometimes manganese accumulation in the brain).
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How Much Manganese Do We Need?
There’s currently no recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for manganese, but the adequate intake is considered 2.3 mg per day for adult men and 1.8 mg per day for adult women (2 mg daily intake when pregnant, 2.6 mg daily when lactating). Due to the neurotoxic effects of excessive manganese, the tolerable upper intake level for manganese is set at 11 mg daily for adults.
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Nutrient Daily Values
Nutrition requirements and recommended nutrient intake for infants, children, adolescents, adults, mature adults, and pregnant and lactating individuals.
Best Food Sources of Manganese
The following foods have high concentrations of manganese, containing at least 50% of the recommended dietary allowance per serving, making them our best food sources of this valuable mineral!
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Good Food Sources of Manganese
The following foods are also excellent or good sources of manganese, containing at least 10% (and up to 50%) of the daily value per serving.
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