Key Takeaways (expand)
- Linoleic acid is an omega-6 fatty acid, and one of only two fatty acids that are essential for humans (the other being an omega-3 fat, alpha-linolenic acid).
- As an essential fat, linoleic acid is needed for growth and development, and must come from dietary sources because we can’t produce it on our own.
- Linoleic acid serves as a precursor for all other omega-6 fats.
- One of these other omega-6 fats is arachidonic acid, which helps form inflammatory mediators and can potentially contribute to inflammation-related conditions (like heart disease and cancer).
- Like other fats, linoleic acid can be used for energy, and also serves as a structural component of cell membranes.
- Linoleic acid is the most abundant polyunsaturated fat in the skin, helping maintain the skin’s barrier function and structural integrity.
- A number of enzymes can use linoleic acid to produce oxidized linoleic acid metabolites (OXLAMs), which are involved in pain regulation, cell signaling, inflammation, and immune response.
- Due to its ability to bind to PPAR-α (a transcription heavily involved in metabolic regulation), linoleic acid can influence energy homeostasis, as well as reduce some lipid levels (such as LDL cholesterol).
- Linoleic acid competes with anti-inflammatory omega-3 fats for conversion enzymes and incorporation into cell membranes; for this reason, excess linoleic acid and/or insufficient omega-3 intake is associated with chronic inflammation and a variety of related health issues.
- Research on linoleic acid and cardiovascular health has been contradictory: studies show it can reduce certain cardiovascular risk factors (like LDL cholesterol), but this doesn’t seem to translate to a reduction in actual heart disease or cardiovascular events.
- The way linoleic acid impacts cardiovascular health is likely dependent on other dietary factors (like omega-3 intake, the presence of dietary antioxidants, whether the linoleic acid has oxidized, and what macronutrient linoleic acid is replacing), as well as individual genetics.
- Some studies suggest linoleic acid could contribute to obesity, via its conversion to arachidonic acid and subsequent inflammatory mediators; but, more controlled research is needed.
- Observational research suggests that linoleic acid could have a beneficial impact on glycemic control and diabetes, but more controlled studies are needed here, too.
- Higher linoleic acid intake tends to be associated with a greater risk of depression and other psychological disorders, possibly due to increased inflammation in the brain and the action of OXLAMs.
- Evidence is mixed for the role of linoleic in cancer, with observational research linking higher linoleic acid intake with lower cancer mortality, but experimental studies showing multiple mechanisms by which it could encourage cancer development. Different cancers may also respond differently to linoleic acid.
- Although extremely rare, linoleic acid deficiency can cause delayed growth, impaired wound healing, fatty liver disease, reproductive problems, extreme thirst, and scaly skin lesions.
- Linoleic acid is abundant in vegetable oils (especially soybean oil, sunflower oil, corn oil, canola oil, and safflower oil), grains, nuts, and seeds.
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Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated omega-6 fatty acid, and one of only two essential fatty acids for humans (the other being the omega-3 fatty acid, alpha-linolenic acid). Although it wasn’t deemed essential until 1930, linoleic acid was first isolated in 1844 from flaxseed (linseed) oil, which also inspired its name: linum meaning “flax” in Latin, and oleic meaning “pertaining to oil”! Interestingly, linoleic acid is the only essential fatty acid whose intake has changed dramatically over the last century. Up until the late 1930s, linoleic acid consumption averaged around 1 to 2% of daily calories—but when agricultural shifts led to increased production of soybean oil and corn oil (both high in linoleic acid), those levels rose to our current intake of over 7% of calories. This has led to much speculation (and subsequent research!) about the health implications of consuming such historically novel levels of linoleic acid.
As an essential fat, small amounts of linoleic acid are crucial for growth and development. It serves as a structural component of cell membranes, is a precursor for bioactive lipid mediators, and plays a role in maintaining the integrity of the skin. Like other fats, it can also be used for energy.
The most abundant dietary sources of linoleic acid are seed-based plant oils (particularly soybean oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, canola oil, and safflower oil), grains, soybeans, pine nuts, sunflower seeds, pecans, Brazil nuts, walnuts, peanuts, sesame seeds, and hemp seeds. Pork, chicken, and eggs also contain linoleic acid, especially from animals fed grain- or soy-based diets (which shifts their fatty acid profile towards higher omega-6 content).
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The Biological Roles of Linoleic Acid
Linoleic acid serves a number of important functions in the body—some shared with other fats, and some unique! For instance, a number of enzymes can oxidize linoleic acid to produce oxidized linoleic acid metabolites (also called OXLAMs), which are then involved in cell signaling, immune response, pain regulation, and inflammation. Linoleic acid also serves as a precursor for all other omega-6 fats. This includes a small amount (about 0.3 to 0.6%) of dietary linoleic acid getting converted to arachidonic acid—an omega-6 fat that, in excess, has been implicated in a number of chronic diseases due to its inflammatory potential. More specifically, arachidonic can be converted into bioactive lipid mediators called eicosanoids, including prostaglandins (which are synthesized in damaged tissue and help generate the inflammatory response), leukotrienes (which are involved in asthmatic and allergic reactions, and help sustain inflammatory responses in general), and thromboxane (which is released from blood platelets and causes them to aggregate—AKA clump together). Although these lipid mediators are important for normal metabolic function, their over-production has been linked to a higher risk of cancer and other inflammation-related conditions. So, the fact that linoleic can potentially increase the body’s arachidonic acid pool and lead to greater production of eicosanoids has been of concern to some scientists.
Linoleic acid can also bind to a transcription factor heavily involved in metabolic regulation: peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha, also called PPAR-α. PPAR-α helps control the transport of fatty acids, inhibits lipogenesis (the formation of fat), and activates enzymes involved in fat breakdown and oxidation. So, through activating PPAR-α, linoleic acid may help reduce some lipid levels in the body (including total LDL cholesterol) and influence energy homeostasis!
On top of these functions, linoleic is the most abundant polyunsaturated fat in the skin. In fact, it’s a component of the membrane sphingolipids that help form and maintain the skin’s water permeability barrier; as a result, it plays a major role in the structural integrity of the skin, as well as its barrier function. Linoleic acid is also abundant in fat tissue and lipoproteins, and is even present in small amounts in the brain (about 2% of total brain fatty acids).
Omega-3 fats compete with omega-6 fats for the same conversion enzymes, as well as for positions in cell membranes—which is why we often hear about the importance of a balanced ratio between these two families. Too much dietary omega-6 relative to omega-3 can interfere with omega-3 metabolism, and is associated with a number of chronic health conditions such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, inflammatory bowel disease, and rheumatoid arthritis. Historically, the human diet is estimated to have featured about a 1:1 ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fats, whereas the modern Western diet has a ratio of 15 to 20:1 or higher (largely due to the increased consumption of omega-6 rich grains and vegetable oils, and under-consumption of omega-3 rich seafood)!
In addition to this competition for enzymes, linoleic acid has been shown to decrease the incorporation of omega-3 fats into phospholipid membranes. In fact, researchers believe that increased consumption of linoleic acid—mostly from vegetable oils like soybean and corn—is responsible for the lower concentrations of omega-3 fats observed in human tissue over time. In areas where vegetable oil intake is high (such as the United States), the amount of linoleic acid in fat tissue has increased by an estimated 130%, with a simultaneous drop in the proportion of omega-3s.
As a result of its effects on omega-3 conversion and incorporation, the health outcomes associated with linoleic acid are due not only to direct effects of this fat, but also to the inhibition of anti-inflammatory mediators produced by longer-chain omega-3 fats (eicosapentaenoic acid, or EPA; and docosahexaenoic acid, or DHA)—in turn limiting the health benefits of these fats.
Although small amounts of dietary linoleic acid (about 0.2 to 0.4% of total energy intake) are needed structurally and for various biological processes, much of what we consume ends up being used as energy.
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Linoleic Acid in Health and Disease
Although linoleic acid can lower LDL cholesterol levels, research hasn’t consistently shown any protective effect against heart disease. Likewise, there’s mixed evidence (some showing benefit, some showing harm) for the effects of linoleic acid on cancer. Higher intakes have also been associated with depression and obesity, although it may have a protective effect against diabetes.
Linoleic Acid and Cardiovascular Disease
A great deal of research has been done on the effects of linoleic acid on cardiovascular health. But, whether this fat plays a beneficial role or a detrimental one has been the subject of much debate! For much of the 20th century, it was believed that omega-6 fats like linoleic acid could lower the risk of heart disease by reducing cholesterol levels in the blood—a prediction that seemed to bear out in early trials in the 1950s through 1970s. Indeed, linoleic acid has a potent cholesterol-lowering effect via several mechanisms: increasing bile acid production and cholesterol breakdown, upregulating the LDL receptor, moving LDL cholesterol out from the blood and into body tissues, and decreasing the conversion of very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) to LDL.
However, whether these cholesterol-lowering effects translate to actual cardiovascular protection is another story. More recently, scientists have speculated that linoleic acid might increase the risk of heart disease due to its inflammatory potential, its susceptibility to oxidation (owing to the multiple double bonds in its molecular structure), and its effects on blood clotting. For example, in LDL particles, linoleic acid is the most commonly oxidized fatty acid, giving it a possible role in the formation of arterial plaque (since oxidized LDL gets taken up by macrophages to create foam cells, and also stimulates inflammatory processes and clotting in the blood). The formation of inflammatory eicosanoids from linoleic acid-derived arachidonic acid, too, could contribute to different stages of heart disease development. And, an increased omega-6 to omega-3 ratio (as produced by a high linoleic acid intake) has frequently been associated with greater cardiovascular disease risk.
While a harmful role of linoleic acid is plausible from a mechanistic angle, research in humans has been controversial and inconsistent! Many observational studies have shown a protective effect of linoleic acid on inflammation, cardiovascular health, and mortality. One meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies found that over time, participants with highest (versus lowest) intake of linoleic acid had a 15% lower risk of experiencing a heart disease event, and a 21% lower risk of dying from heart disease. Another meta-analysis looking at tissue levels of linoleic acid (a potentially more reliable indicator of intake than dietary recalls) found a strong, linear relationship between higher linoleic acid concentrations and reduced cardiovascular disease mortality (as well as cancer mortality and total mortality). And yet another meta-analysis of linoleic acid biomarkers found that people in the highest versus lowest quintile of tissue concentrations had a 23% reduced risk of dying from cardiovascular disease. Likewise, a meta-analysis of studies of healthy individuals found no association between linoleic acid intake and any inflammatory markers, contradicting the theory that linoleic acid contributes to cardiovascular disease by increasing inflammation.
Meanwhile, when it comes to controlled studies, the findings have been quite different. A Cochrane review of 19 randomized controlled trials evaluating the effects of omega-6 intake on cardiovascular health—the most extensive systematic assessment on this topic to date—found no evidence that eating more linoleic acid improves cardiovascular outcomes, with one exception: higher intakes were potentially protective against myocardial infarction (heart attacks). Per this review, about 53 people would need to increase their omega-6 intake in order to prevent one person from having a heart attack. However, the certainty for this finding was graded “low” due to risk of study bias and research imprecision. What’s more, omega-6 fats (including linoleic acid) didn’t appear to impact all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease mortality, cardiovascular events, coronary heart disease events other than heart attack, or fatal or non-fatal stroke. There was evidence that linoleic acid could help reduce total serum cholesterol, but with little or no effect on other relevant risk factors like LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL cholesterol, body weight, or body mass index.
Some trials have tested the specific effects of replacing saturated fat with omega-6 fats (mostly from linoleic acid)—a dietary recommendation promoted by many conventional health organizations, based largely on these fats’ differing effects on cholesterol. While some of these trials appeared to show cardiovascular benefits, many of them were poorly controlled and confounded by other variables (such as significant differences in diet or lifestyle factors between the study groups). One meta-analysis categorized trials based on how adequately they were controlled, and found that when only the well-controlled studies were considered, there was no evidence that replacing saturated fat with linoleic-acid-rich foods had an impact on major heart disease events, heart disease mortality, or total mortality. In general, it was only the poorly controlled trials that pointed to a benefit for linoleic acid for these health outcomes.
So, what do we make of the evidence? There are a few possible explanations for these inconsistencies! For one, the health effects of eating more linoleic acid depend, in part, on what foods or nutrients the linoleic acid is replacing. Some dose-response analyses suggest that linoleic acid lowers cardiovascular disease risk when it replaces refined carbohydrates or some forms of saturated fat in the diet, but it may be less heart-protective than monounsaturated fats (like olive oil) or omega-3 fats (such as from seafood). It’s also possible that the ratio of linoleic acid to omega-3 fats is more important than its absolute level of intake, or that baseline linoleic acid consumption mediates the health effects of eating more of it.
The form in which linoleic acid is consumed may play a role in its cardiovascular effects. For example, research suggests that linoleic acid-rich frying oils have stronger inflammatory potential than similar oils that aren’t repeatedly exposed to high temperatures (such as in salad dressings), due to differences in oxidation. A variety of animal studies have also shown that linoleic acid produces significantly more harmful oxidative metabolites when consumed in the absence of vitamin E (an important fat-soluble antioxidant), indicating the importance of stabilizing oxidation-prone fats like linoleic acid with other dietary components.
Genetic factors can also impact whether or not linoleic acid is ultimately pro-inflammatory—thereby potentially modifying its effects on chronic diseases like cardiovascular disease. More specifically, variations in the FADS1 gene—which encodes delta-5-desaturase, an enzyme involved in the desaturation pathway that converts linoleic acid into arachidonic acid—has been shown to influence the inflammatory response and lipid mediator profile that occurs in response to high linoleic acid intake. In one study, certain FADS1 mutations mediated the effects of supplemental linoleic acid on fasting glucose levels, C-reactive protein, and other inflammation mediators. (Gene variations associated with enhanced FADS1 activity appear to have been positively selected for throughout human evolution, probably to maximize our ability to make other long-chain polyunsaturated fats from precursors like linoleic acid. But, with the modern world’s abundance of linoleic acid-rich foods, what once served an important survival purpose may now actually contribute to disease risk!)
Some early and very influential trials of omega-6-rich diets also had important confounders (such as simultaneously raising omega-3 intake) or design issues (such as lack of blinding, inappropriate crossover designs, or lack of controlling for variables known to influence heart disease risk). As a result, when these studies are used in meta-analyses, they tend to push the results in favor of a heart-protective effect of linoleic acid that might really just be an artefact of poor study quality. Even the more recent linoleic acid studies often don’t account for potential confounders like the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or statins—both of which could skew the associations that show up with linoleic acid in observational studies. And, it’s worth remembering that because replacing animal fats with linoleic-acid-rich vegetable oils has been a staple of official health guidelines for decades, it’s likely that linoleic acid consumption clusters with other health-conscious behaviors, which could then confound the results of observational studies.
In sum, while increasing linoleic acid intake appears to reduce total cholesterol levels, this doesn’t seem to translate into greater protection from cardiovascular events or mortality. But, there isn’t compelling evidence that linoleic acid negatively impacts cardiovascular health in humans, either. It’s likely that other dietary factors—such as fiber intake, phytonutrient intake, and omega-3 intake—play a much greater role in cardiovascular protection.
Myth: Vegetable Oils Are Bad for You
Despite widespread fears about the potential of vegetable oils (often maligned as “industrial seed oils”) to cause inflammation and oxidative damage, the real science tells a different story. Contrary to the myths, research shows that linoleic acid, an essential omega-6 fatty acid abundant in vegetable oils, has significant health benefits, including lowering cholesterol and reducing the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, and breast cancer. In addition, the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio is less critical than previously thought, so vegetable oils can be a healthy part of your diet—no fear required.
Linoleic Acid and Obesity
Research has also explored the possibility of linoleic acid contributing to obesity—again, largely through its conversion to arachidonic acid, which is known to play roles in adipogenesis (fat creation), inflammation, and endocannabinoid system regulation (the activation of this system is often seen in obesity). Some of the inflammatory metabolites created from arachidonic acid have been associated with increased body fat, due to upregulating the differentiation of fat cells. Likewise, several oxidized linoleic acid metabolites can increase the expression of a nuclear hormone receptor involved in lipid metabolism (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma, or PPAR-γ)—which in turn could trigger fat cell differentiation and inflammation. All of these suggest possible routes through which linoleic acid could alter body fat regulation and increase the risk of obesity.
Some human studies have shown that a mother’s linoleic acid consumption during pregnancy can predict their child’s fat mass at ages 4 and 6; although the mechanism isn’t known, animal models suggest this could be due to linoleic acid increasing the levels of certain enzymes involved in fatty acid metabolism. A prospective study of initially normal-weight women likewise found that higher linoleic acid levels in their red blood cells was associated with greater weight gain over time, resulting in overweight or obesity at follow-up (an average of 10.4 years later). A prospective study of German women had similar findings: every 100 mg increase of daily linoleic acid intake was associated with a 0.42% increase in body weight over the course of five years, particularly among women who were initially at a healthy body weight.
However, the research here is still mostly speculative, and a variety of factors could modulate the effects of linoleic acid on a person’s body weight—including genetics, the dietary omega-3 to omega-6 ratio (which has been correlated with obesity), and the overall diet composition (some rodent research suggest that linoleic acid is particularly obesogenic in the context of a high-sugar diet, but not in the context of a high-protein diet!).
Linoleic Acid and Type 2 Diabetes
Studies have also been conducted on the relationship between linoleic acid and diabetes. A meta-analysis of controlled feeding trials found that substituting polyunsaturated fats (mostly from linoleic acid) for saturated fats or carbohydrates, for a period of three to 16 weeks, generally led to a decrease in fasting insulin levels and insulin resistance. However, there was no effect on fasting blood sugar, and most studies included in this analysis also altered omega-3 intake—making it hard to determine whether these insulin effects were due to linoleic acid specifically. Another analysis pooled the results of 20 prospective cohort studies and found that people with the highest versus lowest concentrations of linoleic acid in various biomarkers (plasma, cholesterol esters, and phospholipids) had a 35% reduced risk of developing type 2 diabetes over time.
So, while more controlled research in humans is probably needed, there may be some protective effect of linoleic acid in glycemic control and diabetes prevention.
Linoleic Acid and Mental Health
Interestingly, higher linoleic acid intake has been linked with greater incidence of depression and other psychological disorders in adults.
For example, a study of perimenopausal women found that after adjusting for potential confounders, linoleic acid intake was significantly, positively associated with depressive symptoms. Another study of middle-aged Iranian adults found that the highest versus lowest quartile of linoleic acid intake was associated with an 80% higher odds off depression in men, and 145% higher odds of depression in older participants. Similarly, among older adults, higher linoleic acid intake was associated with 90% higher odds of psychological distress.
Although more research is needed to explore the link between linoleic acid and mental health, it’s possible that excess linoleic acid has a negative effect on mental health due to increased inflammation in the brain and through the action of its oxidized metabolites.
Linoleic Acid and Cancer
Lastly, there’s some evidence that linoleic acid may impact cancer risk and development—although once again, whether it’s protective or potentially harmful is up for debate! For example, observational research has often been promising: a meta-analysis of 38 prospective cohort studies, encompassing over 811,000 participants, found that higher tissue levels of linoleic acid were associated with lower cancer mortality (for every standard deviation increment of tissue linoleic acid, a 9% reduction in cancer deaths). Another meta-analysis found that both dietary linoleic acid intake and blood levels of linoleic acid were associated with a lower risk of breast cancer over time—a 1% reduction for every 10 g daily increment of linoleic acid intake. However, these findings didn’t reach statistical significance.
Yet, experimental studies have shown the potential for linoleic acid to encourage cancer development in several ways, including impairing antitumor T-cell responses, promoting angiogenesis (the formation of new blood cells) by suppressing angiostatin, inducing a higher response of cancer cells to insulin, stimulating cancer cell invasion and metastasis through COX-1-related pathways. Additional evidence shows that the association between linoleic acid and the increased ratios of inflammatory eicosanoids can have a pro-carcinogenic effect. One study even found that linoleic acid was able to linearly increase the rate of tumor growth in animals challenged with a carcinogen. However, the effects of linoleic acid also seem to differ based on the specific cancer type being studied, with in vitro and animal experiments showing that linoleic acid can encourage the growth of breast, gastric, and certain colon cancer cells, but may reduce the growth of liver cancer and certain prostate cancer cells. Given the inconsistent evidence and lack of controlled research in humans, this is a topic that deserves much more investigation!
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Health Effects of Linoleic Acid Deficiency
Given its abundance in the modern diet (as well as the extremely low levels needed to meet our body’s needs), true linoleic acid deficiency is rare. However, when it does occur, it leads to delayed growth and wound healing, reproductive problems, dermatitis, scaly skin lesions, polydipsia (extreme thirst), and fatty liver. With the except of adults with certain genetic abnormalities, most cases of linoleic acid deficiency (and essential fatty acid deficiency in general) are seen in infants.
How Much Linoleic Acid Do We Need?
There is currently no recommended dietary allowance (RDA) set for linoleic acid. However, the adequate intake level for linoleic acid is 17 g daily for adult men up through age 50, and 14 g daily after that; and 12 g daily for adult women up through age 50, and 11 g daily after that (13 g daily while pregnant or breastfeeding). Consuming a diet that includes whole-food sources of polyunsaturated fats, like nuts and seeds, will easily meet the linoleic acid needs for most people.
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Nutrient Daily Values
Nutrition requirements and recommended nutrient intake for infants, children, adolescents, adults, mature adults, and pregnant and lactating individuals.
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Best Food Sources of Linoleic Acid
The following foods are good sources of linoleic acid, containing at least 1.7 grams of this essential fatty acid per serving!
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